"The Stroop Report The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is No More", Secker & Warburg 1980, Under these limitations, restitution seemed to proceed well, at least for a time (see, Alina Skibiska, "Problemy rewindykacji ydowskich nieruchomoci w latach 19441950: Zagadnienia oglne i szczegowe (na przykadzie Szczebrzeszyna)," p. 493-573 in. Singer Jan Kiepura, born of a Jewish mother and Polish father, was one of the most popular artists of that era, and pre-war songs of Jewish composers, including Henryk Wars, Jerzy Petersburski, Artur Gold, Henryk Gold, Zygmunt Biaostocki, Szymon Kataszek and Jakub Kagan, are still widely known in Poland today. [citation needed], For those Polish Jews who remained, the rebuilding of Jewish life in Poland was carried out between October 1944 and 1950 by the Central Committee of Polish Jews (Centralny Komitet ydw Polskich, CKP) which provided legal, educational, social care, cultural, and propaganda services. The full extent of Polish participation in the massacres of the Polish Jewish community remains a controversial subject, in part due to Jewish leaders' refusal to allow the remains of the Jewish victims to be exhumed and their cause of death to be properly established. Polish citizenship by descent in 10 steps. In 1454 anti-Jewish riots flared up in Bohemia's ethnically-German Wrocaw and other Silesian cities, inspired by a Franciscan friar, John of Capistrano, who accused Jews of profaning the Christian religion. [citation needed] Under pressure from Soviet-installed communist authorities, the Bund's leaders 'voluntarily' disbanded the party in 19481949 against the opposition of many activists. The Remuh Synagogue was built for him in 1557. [34] Article 31 of the Statute of Kalisz tried to rein in the Catholic Church from disseminating blood libels against the Jews, by stating: "Accusing Jews of drinking Christian blood is expressly prohibited. A European Union (EU) passport allows you to work, live, retire and study in any country in the European Union without limitations. Nevertheless, while the Jews of Poland enjoyed tranquility for the greater part of Casimir's reign, toward its close they were subjected to persecution on account of the Black Death. The Polish government threatens to revoke the citizenship of Polish Jews who are living in Germany. The estimates of Polish Jews before the war vary from slightly under 3 million to almost 3.5 million (the last nationwide census was conducted in 1931). [66] Polish Jews took part in the November Insurrection of 18301831, the January Insurrection of 1863, as well as in the revolutionary movement of 1905. [43] Compared with the pitiless destruction of their co-religionists in Western Europe, however, Polish Jews did not fare badly; and Jewish refugees from Germany fled to the more hospitable cities in Poland. "[276], Facing violence and a difficult and expensive legal process,[268][271] many returnees eventually decided to leave the country rather than attempt reclamation. 'This Troublesome Question': The United States and the 'Polish Pogroms' of 19181919. [81] It identified eight incidents in the years 19181919 out of 37 mostly empty claims for damages, and estimated the number of victims at 280. Approximately 7,600 Jews were held in a central transit camp in the city before deportation to Treblinka. The territories which included the great bulk of the Jewish population was transferred to Russia, and thus they became subjects of that empire, although in the first half of the 19th century some semblance of a vastly smaller Polish state was preserved, especially in the form of the Congress Poland (18151831). Yet another Jewish official, Jzef wiato, after escaping to the West in 1953, exposed through Radio Free Europe the interrogation methods used the UB which led to its restructuring in 1954. . [citation needed], A second partition of Poland was made on 17 July 1793. Nechama Tec, "When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland", Oxford University Press US, 1987. To discourage Poles from giving shelter to Jews, the Germans often searched houses and introduced ruthless penalties. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014 (. [83] In the Lww (Lviv) pogrom, which occurred in 1918 during the PolishUkrainian War of independence a day after the Poles captured Lviv from the Sich Riflemen the report concluded 64 Jews had been killed (other accounts put the number at 72). Poland is currently easing the way for Jews who left Poland during the Communist organized massive expulsion of 1968 to re-obtain their citizenship. Among the thousands of Polish officers killed by the Soviet NKVD in the Katy massacre there were 500600 Jews. [136] In a town of Luboml, 3,807 Jews lived among its 4,169 inhabitants, constituting the essence of its social and political life. [268], Many of the properties that were previously owned or by Jews were taken over by others during the war. Herschel Grynszpan - Wikipedia Any Pole found giving any help to a Jewish Pole was subject to the death penalty. HOTLINE +94 77 2 114 119. judith harris poet [166][unreliable source? Nevertheless, the king continued to offer his protection to the Jews. The Pale of Settlement (Russian: , chert osdlosti, Yiddish: -, tkhum-ha-moyshv, Hebrew: , tm ha-moshv) was the term given to a region of Imperial Russia in which permanent residency by Jews was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. [185], Poland's Jewish community suffered the most in the Holocaust. First attempts to improve Polish-Israeli relations began in the mid-1970s. [46] The policy of the government toward the Jews of Poland oscillated under Casimir's sons and successors, John I Albert (14921501) and Alexander Jagiellon (15011506). A small mound of human ashes commemorates the 350,000 victims of the Majdanek camp who were killed there by the Nazis. Polish Citizenship through Marriage : r/poland - Reddit In the state schools that did allow Jewish children, there were numerous accounts of beatings and persecution targeting these children. [85][175] The Polish poet and former communist Aleksander Wat has stated that Jews were more inclined to cooperate with the Soviets. [264] As part of the reform the Polish People's Republic enacted legislation on "abandoned property", placing severe limitations on inheritance that were not present in prewar inheritance law, for example limiting restitution to the original owners or their immediate heirs. A European Union (EU) passport allows you to work, live, retire and study in any country in the European Union without limitations. Some Jewish historians have written of the negative attitudes of some Poles towards persecuted Jews during the Holocaust. ", Kalina Gawlas, kuratorka galerii Pierwsze Spotkania w MHP, "The Polish Jews Heritage Genealogy Research Photos Translation", "Origins of Polish Jewry (This Week in Jewish History)", "Homework Help and Textbook Solutions | bartleby", "Remuh Synagogue. Thus between 1827 and 1857 over 30,000 children were placed in the so-called Cantonist schools, where they were pressured to convert. The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. People with physical characteristics such as dark curly hair and brown eyes were particularly vulnerable. Between the end of the PolishSoviet War and late 1938, the Jewish population of the Republic had grown by over 464,000. Many agreed with Rabbi David HaLevi Segal that Poland was a place where "most of the time the gentiles do no harm; on the contrary they do right by Israel" (Divre David; 1689). [124] In a similar manner, the Jewish trade unions excluded non-Jewish professionals from their ranks after 1918. [32], The first Jews to visit Polish territory were traders, while permanent settlement began during the Crusades. The Uprising inspired Jews throughout Poland. [258] The incidents ranged from individual attacks to pogroms. Free shipping for many products! Under his reign, streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland and Jewish settlements are first mentioned as existing in Lvov (1356), Sandomierz (1367), and Kazimierz near Krakw (1386). [267] According to ukasz Krzyanowski, the state actively sought to gain control over a large number of "abandoned" properties. [citation needed]. The amount of destruction, pillage and methodical plunder during the Siege of Krakw (1657) was so enormous that parts the city never again recovered. Poland was a principal center of Jewish culture, because of the long period of statutory religious tolerance and social autonomy which ended after the Partitions of Poland in the 18th century. The lawyers claim that the general public. In just one day all Polish and Jewish media were shut down and replaced by the new Soviet press,[166][unreliable source?] [215][bettersourceneeded] The operation of concentration camps depended on Kapos, the collaborator-prisoners. [262], In a number of other instances, returning Jews still met with threats, violence, and murder from their Polish neighbors, occasionally in a deliberate and organized manner. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". Controversial communist prosecutor dies in the UK", "The Jews in Poland after the Second World War. Confirmation of Polish citizenship occurs after the Polish government issues a decision on your behalf. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. [75][76], While most Polish Jews were neutral to the idea of a Polish state,[77] many played a significant role in the fight for Poland's independence during World War I; around 650 Jews joined the Legiony Polskie formed by Jzef Pisudski, more than all other minorities combined. The contemporary Polish Jewish community is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 members. Estimating the population increase and the emigration from Poland between 1931 and 1939, there were probably 3,474,000 Jews in Poland as of 1 September 1939 (approximately 10% of the total population) primarily centered in large and smaller cities: 77% lived in cities and 23% in the villages. Accusations of blood libel by another fanatic priest led to the riots in Krakw in 1407, although the royal guard hastened to the rescue. Both organizations resisted, with arms, German attempts for additional deportations to Auschwitz and Treblinka. ", "The Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland of 19671968. According to the 1931 National Census there were 3,130,581 Polish Jews measured by the declaration of their religion. [93] Prior to World War II, the Jewish population of d numbered about 233,000, roughly one-third of the city's population. The antisemitic rejection of Jews, whether for religious or racial reasons, caused estrangement and growing tensions between Jews and Poles. Scientist Leopold Infeld, mathematician Stanislaw Ulam, Alfred Tarski, and professor Adam Ulam contributed to the world of science. [47][48][49][50] Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. At Treblinka there is a monument built out of many shards of broken stone, as well as a mausoleum dedicated to those who perished there. By the late 19th century, Haskalah and the debates it caused created a growing number of political movements within the Jewish community itself, covering a wide range of views and vying for votes in local and regional elections. Such schools were officially known as gymnasia, and their rabbi principals as rectors. Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath. As a result of these factors they found it easy after 1939 to participate in the Soviet occupation administration in Eastern Poland, and briefly occupied prominent positions in industry, schools, local government, police and other Soviet-installed institutions. [130], The national boycott of Jewish businesses and advocacy for their confiscation was promoted by the Endecja party, which introduced the term "Christian shop". [11][bettersourceneeded], Some Polish Communists of Jewish descent actively participated in the establishment of the communist regime in the People's Republic of Poland between 1944 and 1956. "On Reconciling the Histories of Two Chosen Peoples." However, religious persecution gradually increased, as the dogmatic clergy pushed for less official tolerance, pressured by the Synod of Constance. The fate of the Warsaw Ghetto was similar to that of the other ghettos in which Jews were concentrated. These include Midrasz, Dos Jidische Wort (which is bilingual), as well as a youth journal Jidele and "Sztendlach" for young children. [259], The best-known case is the Kielce pogrom of 4 July 1946,[260] in which thirty-seven Jews and two Poles were murdered. For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagieo's broker, was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soltys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. "[179], The issue of Jewish collaboration with the Soviet occupation remains controversial. Polish citizenship by descent made easy [277], Decades later, reclaiming pre-war property would lead to a number of controversies, and the matter is still debated by media and scholars as of late 2010s. Other Jewish authors of the period, such as Bruno Schulz, Julian Tuwim, Marian Hemar, Emanuel Schlechter and Bolesaw Lemian, as well as Konrad Tom and Jerzy Jurandot, were less well known internationally, but made important contributions to Polish literature. Through 1698, the Polish kings generally remained supportive of the Jews. In 13881389, broad privileges were extended to Lithuanian Jews including freedom of religion and commerce on equal terms with the Christians. The fight against informers was organized by the Armia Krajowa (the Underground State's military arm), with the death sentence being meted out on a scale unknown in the occupied countries of Western Europe.[222]. [9][10][11] With the weakening of the Commonwealth and growing religious strife (due to the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation), Poland's traditional tolerance[12] began to wane from the 17th century. [159], The Soviet Union signed a Pact with Nazi Germany on 23 August 1939 containing a protocol about partition of Poland (generally known but denied by the Soviet Union for the next 50 years). [87] The result of the concerns over the fate of Poland's Jews was a series of explicit clauses in the Versailles Treaty signed by the Western powers, and President Paderewski,[88] protecting the rights of minorities in new Poland including Germans. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. Jews knew of these policies and knew the nationalists wanted to end them, as the Jewish virtual library states "The Jewish Chronicle, usually at that time reflecting a Board of Deputies viewpoint, reported on Oct 2 nd 1936 page 12, a meeting called by the Jewish Labour Council, under the heading, 'Spain's fight is your fight', describing the speaker, Mr J Jacobs, as saying, 'Jews in . The marchers honor Holocaust Remembrance Day as well as Israel Independence Day. According to Irgun activists, the Polish state supplied the organisation with 25,000 rifles, additional material and weapons, and by summer 1939 Irgun's Warsaw warehouses held 5,000 rifles and 1,000 machine guns. Common Polish names and why they're so hard to pronounce. Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by Berek Joselewicz, took part in the Kociuszko Uprising the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. The agreement granted certain cultural and religious rights to Jews in exchange for Jewish support for Polish nationalist interests; however, the Galician Zionists had little to show for their compromise because the Polish government later refused to honor many aspects of the agreement. About 50 ghetto fighters were saved by the Polish "People's Guard" and later formed their own partisan group, named after Anielewicz. The 2021 Guide to Acquiring Polish Citizenship by Descent On 17 January 1945, the Soviet Army entered a destroyed and nearly uninhabited Warsaw. Sometimes the Judenrat refused to collaborate in which case its members were consequently executed and replaced by the new group of people. Dia-Pozytyw: People, Biographical Profiles, "Auschwitz-Birkenau Concentration Camp Advice from a Tour Guide", "Emigration of Jewish people from Poland in 19451967", Patterns Of Anti-Jewish Violence In Poland, 19441946, Poland's Century: War, Communism and Anti-Semitism, "The Kielce pogrom as told by the eyewitness", The Plunder of Jewish Property during the Holocaust, "The polish debate on the holocaust and the restitution of property", "Restitution of Private Property in Postwar Poland: The Unfinished Legacy of the Second World War and Communism", Searching for Justice After the Holocaust: Fulfilling the Terezin Declaration and Immovable Property Restitution, "Poland's reclaimed properties create scars across Warsaw", The Chief Rabbi's View on Jews and Poland Michael Schudrich, "Jakub Berman's Papers Received at the Hoover Institution Archives", "Helena Wolinska-Brus: 19192008. [64] The Commonwealth lost 30% of its land during the annexations of 1772, and even more of its peoples. About 50,000 Jews from the city and the surrounding region were confined in a small area of Biaystok. [13] After the Partitions of Poland in 1795 and the destruction of Poland as a sovereign state, Polish Jews became subject to the laws of the partitioning powers, including the increasingly antisemitic Russian Empire,[14] as well as Austria-Hungary and Kingdom of Prussia (later a part of the German Empire). [137] Violence was also frequently aimed at Jewish stores, and many of them were looted. [176][177] Following Jan Karski's report written in 1940, historian Norman Davies claimed that among the informers and collaborators, the percentage of Jews was striking; likewise, General Wadysaw Sikorski estimated that 30% of them identified with the communists whilst engaging in provocations; they prepared lists of Polish "class enemies". In 2013, POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews opened. The ghetto was established by the German Governor-General Hans Frank on 16 October 1940. In 1348, the first blood libel accusation against Jews in Poland was recorded, and in 1367 the first pogrom took place in Pozna. [110] However, a combination of various factors, including the Great Depression,[109] meant that the situation of Jewish Poles was never very satisfactory, and it deteriorated again after Pisudski's death in May 1935, which many Jews regarded as a tragedy. Collaboration by non-Jewish Polish citizens, while sporadic, is well documented and the topic has been a subject of renewed scholarly interest during the 21st century. [268] While it is hard to determine the total number of successful reclamations, Michael Meng estimates that it was extremely small. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. [243] The guerrillas were armed with only one machine gun, several dozen pistols, Molotov cocktails and bottles filled with acid. By adoption if the child is under 16. [279] Many left for the West because they did not want to live under a Communist regime. When we invaded the Ghetto for the first time wrote SS commander Jrgen Stroop the Jews and the Polish bandits succeeded in repelling the participating units, including tanks and armored cars, by a well-prepared concentration of fire. However, only about 4,000 actually went there; most settled throughout Europe and in the United States. The Polish language, rather than Yiddish, was increasingly used by the young Warsaw Jews who did not have a problem in identifying themselves fully as Jews, Varsovians and Poles. [235] The OB had more than 750 fighters, but lacked weapons; they had only 9 rifles, 59 pistols and several grenades. To obtain Polish citizenship, a foreigner must remain married to a Polish citizen for a period of at least 3 years and have stayed in Poland legally and uninterruptedly for at least 2 years under a permanent residence permit, and their knowledge of Polish language must be documented. Following Operation Barbarossa, many Jews in what was then Eastern Poland fell victim to Nazi death squads called Einsatzgruppen, which massacred Jews, especially in 1941. Important yeshivot existed in Krakw, Pozna, and other cities. [283][bettersourceneeded], The Great Synagogue in Owicim was excavated after testimony by a Holocaust survivor suggested that many Jewish relics and ritual objects had been buried there, just before Nazis took over the town. April 29 . At times, Jews were forbidden to live in agricultural communities, or certain cities, as in Kyiv, Sevastopol and Yalta, excluded from residency at a number of cities within the Pale. [34] The next year he issued a proclamation in which he stated that a policy of tolerance befitted "kings and rulers".[46]. . Poland was the first of the Eastern Bloc countries to restore diplomatic relations with Israel after these have been broken off right after the Six-Day's War. Four of these were attributed to the actions of deserters and undisciplined individual soldiers; none was blamed on official government policy. "Jews in Poland Polish Jews in World War II", "Vilnius (Vilna), Lithuania Jewish History Tour". Another athlete, Alojzy Ehrlich, won several medals in the table-tennis tournaments. [citation needed] However, this did not prevent them from becoming victims of a campaign, centrally organized by the Polish Communist Party, with Soviet backing, which equated Jewish origins with "Zionism" and disloyalty to a Socialist Poland. [37] Bolesaw III recognized the utility of Jews in the development of the commercial interests of his country. The Soviet Union followed suit by invading eastern Poland on 17 September 1939. Jews were robbed and handed over to the Germans by "szmalcowniks" (the 'shmalts' people: from shmalts or szmalec, Yiddish and Polish for 'grease'). [60] By 1764, there were about 750,000 Jews in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. Within weeks, 61.2% of Polish Jews found themselves under the German occupation, while 38.8% were trapped in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. [261][bettersourceneeded] The debate in Poland continues about the involvement of regular troops in the killings, and possible Soviet influences. Many historical issues, especially related to World War II and the 194489 period, suppressed by Communist censorship, have been re-evaluated and publicly discussed (like the Jedwabne pogrom, the Koniuchy massacre, the Kielce pogrom, the Auschwitz cross, and Polish-Jewish wartime relations in general). Similar privileges were granted to the Silesian Jews by the local princes, Henryk IV Probus of Wrocaw in 127390, Henryk III of Gogw in 1274 and 1299, Henryk V the Fat of Legnica in 1290-95, and Bolko III the Generous of Legnica and Wrocaw in 1295. The funds for the memorial came from the city itself and from the U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad. [144] As Jabotinsky envisioned in his "Evacuation Plan" the settlement of 1.5 million East European Jews within 10 years in Palestine, including 750,000 Polish Jews, he and Beck shared a common goal. [204] The reasons for these massacres are still debated, but they included antisemitism, resentment over alleged cooperation with the Soviet invaders in the Polish-Soviet War and during the 1939 invasion of the Kresy regions, greed for the possessions of the Jews, and of course coercion by the Nazis to participate in such massacres. The Soviet rule resulted in near collapse of the local economy, characterized by insufficient wages and general shortage of goods and materials. The Polish commander of one Jewish unit, Waclaw Micuta, described them as some of the best fighters, always at the front line. If you have Polish (including Polish-Jewish) ancestry, you probably already are a Polish citizen and qualify for a Polish Passport which is the same as an EU passport. [152], The number of Jews in Poland on 1 September 1939, amounted to about 3,474,000 people. Although traditional narrative holds that as a consequence, the predicament of the Commonwealths Jewry worsened, declining to the level of other European countries by the end of the eighteenth century, recent scholarship by Gershon Hundert, Moshe Rosman, Edward Fram, and Magda Teter, suggest that the reality was much more complex. [294], In 2006, Poland's Jewish population was estimated to be approximately 20,000;[2] most living in Warsaw, Wrocaw, Krakw, and Bielsko-Biaa, though there are no census figures that would give an exact number. The task of providing ancestral documents required for the application with the Polish government is harder for Jewish people, in terms of both paperwork and the emotional memories many families face. One of them, a diplomat and merchant from the Moorish town of Tortosa in Spanish Al-Andalus, known by his Arabic name, Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, was the first chronicler to mention the Polish state ruled by Prince Mieszko I. At the same time there was an ongoing power struggle within the party itself and the antisemitic campaign was used by one faction against another. April 5. In August 1943, the Germans mounted an operation to destroy the Biaystok ghetto. Just found out through a lawyer that I am eligible for Polish citizenship. The traditional sources of livelihood for the estimated 300,000 Jewish family-run businesses in the country began to vanish, contributing to a growing trend toward isolationism and internal self-sufficiency. There's a gotcha: if he naturalized as a US citizen before January 1951, his Polish citizenship would have been automatically revoked . [82] The Morgenthau Report found the charge to be "devoid of foundation" even though their meeting was illegal to the extent of being treasonable. In Majdanek, after another screening for ability to work, they were transported to the Poniatowa, Blizyn, or Auschwitz camps. [140] The Polish government condemned wanton violence against the Jewish minority, fearing international repercussions, but shared the view that the Jewish minority hindered Poland's development; in January 1937 Foreign Minister Jzef Beck declared that Poland could house 500,000 Jews, and hoped that over the next 30 years 80,000-100,000 Jews a year would leave Poland. The environment of the Polish Commonwealth, according to Hundert, profoundly affected Jews due to genuinely positive encounter with the Christian culture across the many cities and towns owned by the Polish aristocracy. General Anders decided not to prosecute the deserters and emphasized that the Jewish soldiers who remained in the Force fought bravely. The move comes as neighbouring Poland comes under the spotlight for a draft law which critics say would make it harder for Jews to recover property seized by Nazi occupiers during World War Two. The population of the ghetto reached 380,000 people by the end of 1940, about 30% of the population of Warsaw. [182][183], There were also Jews who assisted Poles during the Soviet occupation. The kingdom of Poland which had already suffered from the Khmelnytsky Uprising and from the recurring invasions of the Russians, Crimean Tatars and Ottomans, became the scene of even more atrocities. The General Zionist party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the first Polish Sejm since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote. Jewish religious life has been revived with the help of the Ronald Lauder Foundation and the Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and legal scholar, Isserles was also learned in Kabbalah, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy. [292], The March of the Living is an annual event in April held since 1988 to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue. Traders and artisans jealous of Jewish prosperity, and fearing their rivalry, supported the harassment. According to the Polish Moses Schorr Centre and other Polish sources, however, this may represent an undercount of the actual number of Jews living in Poland, since many are not religious. A foreigner can apply to become a Polish citizen by applying for a presidential grant. The process of seeking Polish citizenship involves the collection of many documents through digital archives, dusted-off family documents, and municipal registries. Using a comparative approach, Anna Cichopek-Gajraj discusses survivors' journeys home, their struggles to retain citizenship and repossess property, their coping with antisemitism, and their efforts to return to 'normality'. [161], The Soviet annexation was accompanied by the widespread arrests of government officials, police, military personnel, border guards, teachers, priests, judges etc., followed by the NKVD prisoner massacres and massive deportation of 320,000 Polish nationals to the Soviet interior and the Gulag slave labor camps where, as a result of the inhuman conditions, about half of them died before the end of war.
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